A Tempo

Score marking indicating a return to the normal tempo after a temporary change of speed. Generally speaking, the section of music that is sung or played at a different pace is often sung or played more quickly than the original tempo so when performers return to the initial speed, "a tempo," they in effect slow down. This is not always the case and is often dependent upon the style of music.

A-flat major

Its relative minor is F minor, and its parallel minor is A-flat minor. The key is said to have a peaceful, serene feel, and was used quite often by Franz Schubert. Beethoven often chose A-flat major as the key for a slow movement following a movement in C minor, a practice which Anton Bruckner imitated in his first two C minor symphonies and also Antonín Dvořák in his only C minor symphony. Since A-flat major was not often chosen as the main key for orchestral works of the 18th Century, passages or movements in the key often retained the timpani settings of the preceding movement. For example, Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C minor has the timpani set to C ang G for the first movement. With hand tuned timpani, there is no time to retune the timpani to A-flat and E-flat for the slow second movement in A-flat. In Bruckner's Symphony No. 1 in C minor, however, the timpani are retuned between the first movement in C minor and the following in A-flat major. Edward Elgar's Symphony No. 1 in A-flat major is probably the only symphony in that key in the orchestral repertoire. A-flat major is the flattest major key Domenico Scarlatti used in his keyboard sonatas, though just for two of them, K. 127 and K. 130. Felix Mendelssohn and John Field each wrote one piano concerto in A-flat (Mendelssohn's being for two pianos); they had the horns and trumpet tuned to E-flat.

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A-flat minor

Its relative key is C-flat major, and its parallel major is A-flat major. Its enharmonic equivalent is G-sharp minor. Changes needed for the melodic and harmonic versions of the scale are written in with accidentals as necessary. Although A-flat minor occurs in modulation in works in other keys, it is seldom used as the principal key of a piece of music.

A/D

An abbreviation of Analog to Digital Conversion (the conversion of a quantity that has continuous changes into numbers that approximate those changes), or Analog to Digital Converter.

Acoustic / Acoustical

Having to do with sound that can be heard by the ears.

Acoustic Amplifier

The portion of the instrument which makes the vibrating source move more air or move air more efficiently; this makes the sound of the instrument louder. Examples of acoustic amplifiers include: 1) The body of an acoustic guitar, 2) The sounding board of a piano, 3) The bell of a horn and 4) The shell of a drum.

Acoustic Echo Chamber

A room designed with very hard, non-parallel surfaces and equipped with a speaker and microphone; dry signals from the console are fed to the speaker and the microphone will have a reverberation of these signals that can be mixed in with the dry signals at the console.

Acoustical Absorption

The quality of a surface or substance to take in the sound wave and not reflect it or pass it through, or an instance of this.

Adagio

Logically and literally an ambiguous word this tempo marking on a score of music can have a variety of interpretations, historically and contextually. The meaning of adagio has changed throughout the centuries and for the most part has come to mean a slow, relaxed, graceful style of playing or singing. In a three and four movement symphony, with occasional exceptions, the movement marked adagio is usually the slowest of the three or four. Few can decide if adagio is slower than grave or largo. Some place it as a speed between these tempos while others maintain that it is the slowest possible of orchestral movements besides "adagio adagio" or "adagiosissimo." At one time it was argued that adagio indicated a pace between largo, the slowest, and andante, a walking pace. The tempo indication is most effective when it is put in the hands of the performer to do with as s/he pleases or "as one wishes." Arguably the term can simply mean graceful and at ease.

Additive Synthesis

The process of constructing a complex sound using a series of fundamental frequencies (pure tones or sine waves).

Al Fine

This musical phrase is an Italian direction literally meaning "to the end." Performers, vocalists or instrumentalists, are thus instructed to return to the beginning of a section of music, perhaps the beginning of the entire piece, and sing or play the entire section again, but, only to the point marked "fine" or "the end." In other words, repeat this section but do not forget to "Stop Here!"

Alla Breve

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance a system of proportions was developed for metric notation. The indicators, what are now referred to as time signatures, were developed to indicate the rhythmic proportion the notes had in relation to one another for a particular piece of music. All breve indicated a proportion of 2:1 where note shapes diminished in value. Today alla breve is used to indicate cut-time or a measure of two quarter notes per measure each receiving one beat. The meter is much quicker than its corresponding or proportional common time. Variations of music in the Middle Ages and Renaissance often used diminished and augmented rhythms indicated by proportional score markings.

Allegretto

Allegretto is the diminished form of the tempo marking allegro. Generally allegretto indicates a meter or pace that should be played a 'little less fast'. Pieces scored allegretto are also generally lighter in attitude than pieces scored allegro. Historically there is some evidence to indicate that allegretto, in certain contexts, was interpreted to mean a 'little faster'. However, when categorized in lists of tempos allegretto is found between 'allegro' and 'andantino'. It was afforded a pace and place that was a 'little less fast' than allegro and a 'little faster than a walking pace'. The hallmark piece of music for his particular rhythmic marking is Beethoven's slow movement of the Seventh Symphony. Leopold Mozart described allegretto as if it should be played with frivolity and a jocular spirit.

Allegro

One of the most familiar tempo markings in all of Western music. As all tempo markings are etymologically Italian this needs little comment. Allegro simply means lively, fast, merry, cheerful. It is considered to be moderately fast by all commentaries and standard tempo lists by comparison. Arguments have continued about the exact nature of allegro, that is, if it meant quick or moderately fast. Historically, however, as with most musical terms, the meaning has shifted. In its earliest use allegro designated a specific trill, and later, that singers should pace themselves according to the textual setting. By the late seventeenth century the term began to take on its present character and was used to indicate a very fast movement. Often, allegro and presto are used synonymously or interchangeably. Interestingly, tempo markings had certain regional nuances as well. Allegro was played much faster in Berlin than elsewhere according to the writings of C.P.E. Bach.

Amplitude Modulation

A change in the level of a signal. For example, if a Voltage Controlled Amplifier (VCA) were being modulated by a Low Frequency Oscillator (LFO), the result would be a periodic increase and decrease in the audio level of the signal. In musical terms this would be referred to as Tremolo. The abbreviation of Amplitude Modulation is AM.

Analog Synthesizer

A synthesizer which uses voltage controlled analog modules to synthesize sound. The three main voltage controlled modules in an analog synthesizer are: Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO), Voltage Controlled Filter (VCF), and Voltage Controlled Amplifier (VCA).

Andante

Andante is an Italian score marking indicating a tempo that is maintained at a walking pace. The term came to prominence during the nineteenth century but was not generally used as a tempo indicator until this time. Previously it was an instructive word specifically for bass lines in what musically are now referred to as "walking bass" lines. The "pace" was to be steady, consistent and accurate. Andante signified playing each note in the bass with clarity and distinction. The notes were supposed to be played with exact precision in relation to one another particularly in continuo bass lines. By the eighteenth century the term began to be used as a tempo marking classified between largo and allegro and is now listed between adagio and allegro.

Aperiodic Waveform

A waveform that does not have a repeating pattern.

ARP

American Recording & Performance Co, a company which introduced some amazung synthesizers in the late seventires and early eighties.

Arpeggiator

A device or computer program that sequentially moves a pattern of notes over a range of the keyboard.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, consisting of a group of countries that borders the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, was organized to liberalize trade.

Assai

The Italian word for "very" assai often appears in conjunction with a primary term regarding tempo. "Allegro assai moderato," for example, means a very moderate allegro/fast. Consistent meanings of the term, like most other tempo markings, are scarce. Instead of "very" the term was used by some composers to indicate "rather" or "moderately." In Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, for example, he originally marked one passage "moderately" but in the finished edition of the work marked the same passage "allegro assai."

Attenuator

Attenuate means to reduce in force, value or amount. An Attenuator is a device that reduces the value of something, usually the amplitude of a signal.

Audible Range

The range of frequencies that the human ear can hear. A healthy young human can usually hear from 20 cycles per second to around 20,000 cycles per second (20-20,000 Hz).

Audio

Most often referring to electrical signals resulting from the sound pressure wave being converted into electrical energy.

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